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Author: Admin | 2025-04-28
Three different 2-component regulatory systems (like the pilus expression (Cpx) response, the regulation of capsular synthesis (Rcs) phosphorelay and the bacterial adaptive response (Bae)) and the phage shock protein response (PSP).RpoE regulates the expression of genes involved in protein folding and degradation, cell envelope biogenesis and cell envelope modification. For example: RpoE controls the alginate production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. RpoE is also involved in the modification of LPS through the PhoPQ regulon and MicL sRNAs. These modifications can increase the bacterial resistance to antimicrobial molecules like CAMP and metal or metal oxide nanoparticles. RpoE also induces the expression of RybB and MicA sRNAs. These two sRNAs downregulate the production of porins and reduces the entry pathways of the nanoparticles to the bacteria.The first of the three different 2-component regulatory systems is Cpx. Cpx regulates the protein export systems associated with virulence. While the Rcs response (the second of the three different 2-component regulatory systems) is induced by conditions that can disrupt the cell envelope and control the production of macromolecular envelope structures and the envelope homeostasis. Finally, the bacterial adaptive response regulates the expression of different types of efflux pumps while the phage shock protein response maintains the proton motive force and prevents mislocalized secretin toxicity.The ESR in Gram-positive bacteria is formed by three systems. The first system regulates the response to specific noxious stimuli. The second system is activated by harmful agents present in the cell wall. These systems include extracytoplasmic function (ECF) σ factors and 2-component regulatory systems. The third system is not induced by cell wall damage but does play a role in controlling cell envelope integrity. These three systems regulate the cell envelope charge, cell wall metabolism, and expression of efflux pumps [56]. 5. Defense Mechanisms against the Production of ROS and Oxidative Stress by Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles.The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during the interaction of metal and metal oxide with bacteria is another mechanism of the bactericidal activity of these types of nanoparticles. The degree of ROS generation depends on the metal or metal oxide from which the nanoparticle is synthesized,
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